THIS IS AN EXTRACT FROM AN UPCOMING BOOK
The Islamic Slave Revolts of
Bahia
,
Brazil
UNDER CONSTRUCTION
It is far better to follow something, than lead nothing
-- Owen 'Alik Shahadah, Writer
by
MUHAMMAD SHAREEF
Edited by Owen 'Alik Shahadah
Copyright
© 1418/1998 Muhammad Shareef
Institute of Islamic - African Studies
بِسْمِ اللَّهِ الرَّحْمَنِ الرّحِيمِ وَصَلّى اللّهُ عَلَي سَيِّدِنَاْلِيماً |
"In the face of cultural aggression of all sorts,
in the face of all disintegrating factors of the outside world,
the most efficient weapon with which a people can arm itself is this feeling of
historical continuity"
Resistance, revolt,
and eventual social transformation is born out of an oppressed peoples
awareness of themselves and the knowledge that their `collective soul' is under
attack by their oppressors. To the
degree that this cultural cohesiveness persist determines the degree to which
the oppressed group will go in order to assure its survival. It is knowledge of one's authentic culture,
religion, social status that germinates the desire for resistance in the face
of cultural aggression. |
|
However, when
the historical conscience and culture of an oppressed group have been erased
and destroyed, it determines the manner in which they will resist or if they
will opt for resistance at all. Certain
African-American leaders and organizations in the U.S. are examples where the
collective historical conscience was successfully eradicated, they then chose
not to resist the cultural aggression of their European American aggressors and
opted to assimilate and gradually effect change in the society in which they
were held captive, by means of `civil
disobedience' executed in a non-violent way. This, however, was not the norm.
Herbert Apethker points out rather succinctly
that armed struggle was “rather a regular and ever-recurring phenomenon in the
life” of
America
.
[2]
Every year from 1511 until 1864, in every region of the North American
continent, where Africans lived, there were revolts or insurrections for
freedom and justice using the medium of armed struggle. These slave revolts occurred during a time
when the Africans in
America
still possessed some small remnant of their cultural heritage. Nat Turner's mother and grandmother taught
him about
Africa
, which engendered in Nat a
sense of self worth and resulted in his eventual call to arms.
[3]
In other cases where the historical and
cultural conscience of the slave was eradicated, they resisted utilizing the
terms and frames of reference of the oppressors. This type of resistance can be called
secondary resistance, because it aims to define the insurgency in terms that
the oppressor is familiar with. The
ideological basis of the resistance is couched in the terms that are dear to
the aspirations of the slaver or colonizer. In some ways, secondary resistance becomes
a confirmation and corroboration of the `innate superiority' of the oppressor’s
culture. For this reason, secondary
resistances have been more successful in the short term, because the ‘master’
class and the "colonial official class could not disavow the normative
validity of metropolitan standards".
[4]
In
the long term, however, secondary resistance works in the favor of the
slave-master class or colonizers because the oppressed will be indebted to its
oppressors on an ideological level and the ordeal of slavery and colonization
becomes justified, because through it `the light of civilization' is
successfully passed to the `inferiors'. And thus, the oppressor sits back and sighs, feeling exonerated and
vindicated, as he benevolently looks down upon his ex-subjects or once slaves
in their awkward and inept attempt to replicate the dominant culture. The deplorable condition of African Americans
in the U.S. and the present political crisis in the whole of Africa are glaring
proofs of this phenomenon. In fact, those acts of resistance which met with
eventual approval from the dominant Anglo-American culture, were those which
had nothing at all to do with the ‘ideals of the founding fathers’, while those
which were marginalized and rejected, were those acts of resistance which
closely resembled the ideals that initiated the so-called ‘American
Revolution’. Thus, the un-American ideas of non-violence espoused by Martin
Luther King, were accepted over the purely American ideas of military
resistance espoused by al-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz.
[5]
An oppressed group
having the ability to define its own ideology and culture, on the other hand,
represents primary resistance. It
emerges from the priority of a cohesive belief system backed up by a nation
state or polity and a continuous and persistent sense of historical conscience.
This type of revolt or resistance sees itself inherently superior to its
oppressor and it does not capitulate to the terms of reference of its
oppressors, but defines itself and its oppressors from its own terms of
reference. The oppressors have never
tolerated this type of resistance, because it seeks to destroy the very
foundation and structure of the oppressors’ system. The ideals, customs, traditions and political
constitution of the oppressor is seen as innately inferior and in need of
eradication by means of a total transformation of society and the rebirth of
the ideals and culture which induced the slaves or colonized group to revolt in
the first place. Primary resistance can
only emerge when the historical conscience, the linguistic factor and the
psychological temperament are intact and extant.
[6]
Historical examples of
primary resistance to European hegemony, in particular, were the resistance
demonstrated by the unitary state of Ethiopia in its war against Italian
aggression. Another was the heroic armed struggle put forward by the Ashanti
against the British in the late 19th century. Finally, there were the crushing defeats, which the Europeans suffered
at the hands of various Islamic resistance movements throughout Africa. Among them were the resistance of Samore
Toure in Guinea, Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi of the Sudan, Abd’l-Qaadir al-Jaza'iri
of Algeria, the Sunissiya of Libya, Muhammad ibn Abdallah ibn Hassan of
Somalia, and the Sokoto Islamic resistance of northern Nigeria. Each of these revolts against European
aggression were characterized by a deep historical conscience of itself, a
unified linguistic cohesiveness, and a psychological temperament which gave it
a sense of innate superiority over their European aggressors.
Were examples of this
type of cultural cohesiveness transmitted to the `new world' during the
Atlantic slave trade? Were there
examples of the persistence of African traditions and historical conscience
being diffused into the western hemisphere? And if so, to what degree did this diffusion of African culture
exists? Was this the primary cause of the many slave revolts, which affected the Caribbean, the United
States and South America? These
questions and others will be examined in this study, which will attempt to
demonstrate the emergence of primary resistance movements characterized by
historical conscience, linguistic cohesiveness and psychological temperament
(demonstrated through religious beliefs) in the western hemisphere, with
specified reference to the slave revolts which took place in Bahia, Brazil
between 1807 and 1835. The research will
demonstrate that the slave revolts of Bahia were, for the most part, Islamic in
character, and were not just a reaction to the degradations of slavery. There was a desire by the Muslim community of
Bahia, both slave and freedmen (assisted by others), to replicate the
responses, which were typical of Muslim responses to cultural aggression in the
African continent. These responses can
be summed up into two, which ultimately leads to self-governance. They are hijra
(flight or emigration) and jihad
(struggle). These two terms
defined the Islamic response to cultural aggression from the earliest times of
Islam until the emergence of the 19th century West African jihad movements that had direct influence upon events in Bahia. It would be absurd for a scholar to say that
the existence of Iberian culture in Brazil was no proof that Iberian culture
was transmuted into Brazil. The
refutation of that would not need documentation or citation. Likewise, no refutation is warranted to the
fact that Bahia witnessed from enslaved Sudanese Muslim and freedmen a
transmigration of the same Islamically inspired upheavals which were taking
place in Central and Western Sudan from the 15th century to the 19th
century. This research will highlight
that these slave revolts were not just a reaction to Portuguese slavery, but
was the persistence of a continuous tradition that emerged centuries before the
Europeans arrived in Africa. Only
historians who are obscurantists and who lack intellectual uprightness would
assert the opposing view. Western academics as well as western intelligence
agencies have long suppressed the full truth of the role that Islam, and
particularly ‘African’ Islam has played in the formation of states in the
western hemisphere. This humble study seeks to shed some light on this shadowy
subject so that a true picture of western culture can be seen for what it is,
having its sources not just in the Judeo-Christian and Euro centric idea; but
getting its most explosive ideas for freedom and justice from the persistence
of enslaved Sudanic Muslim and their tenacity for self-determination.
The Islamic Revolt of 1807 -1809
For
the first time since the importing of African slaves into Bahia, there would
emerge a series of revolts that would rock the ‘calm’ of Bahian society. The first such revolt was that which occured
on the evening of May 27, 1807. Its principle organizers were two African
Muslims of Hausa descent. One was a slave named Balthazar who was 'owned' by
Francisco das Chagas. Balthazar was the imam of this revolt, whose home on Corpo Santo Street was used as the mosque and
meeting place where weapons and Arabic literature were kept.
[97]
The
other leader was a freedman by the name of Antonio, who was chosen as the wazir
or 'ambassador' to establish contacts and coordinate the plans between
the urban slaves and the rural ones. This job was easy for him because he alone possessed the freedom of
movement that would not be suspect. He
worked as a merchant traveling between Santo Amaro and Salvador.
[98]
What
is significant here, is that a freedman had accepted the leadership of a
‘slave’ simply because of the latter’s superiority in knowledge and taqwa (fearful awareness of Allah). This would seem problematic in Islam because it
is not permissible to give the oath of allegiance to a slave.
[99]
The only exception is when the Amir or Imam is captured in war
and there is cause to believe that he will be eventually freed. Sultan Muhammad
Bello said:
“The contract with Muslim leaders (a’ima)
is only annulled when the objectives of leadership has been rendered null and
void, like apostasy, recognized madness, or when the leader has been made
a war captive or imprisoned and there is no hope of him being freed,
likewise by a sickness which causes the leader to forget knowledge, by
blindness, deafness or muteness, or when he removes himself due to his
inability to establish the welfare of the Muslims…”
[100]
The Muslims under the leadership of Balthazar
and Antonio, planned to first set fire to the customs house and church of
Nazareth in order to detract attention. Then the Muslims would seize the Nazareth arsenal, where guns and other
weapons were stored. The revolt was many
months in the planning, but on May 22, 1807 the Governor of Bahia received news
of an impending revolt by the "Hausa nation". The Governor conducted
and investigation that lasted for three days in which he gathered all of the
details of the plot. 'Reliable slaves'
were employed to infiltrate the insurrection and to report upon its activities.
By the 26th of May the Governor learned a full description of the size of the
rebel organization and its leaders.
[107]
As a result of this knowledge the Governor
ordered his soldiers to surround the staging areas of the revolt in Nazareth
where they were scheduled to assemble. The soldiers, led by Captain Joao de
Chastinet, were able to arrest seven Muslims in the city and four in the rural
districts. Many of the other rebels
escaped realizing that their leaders had been captured. An investigation of the casebres revealed "four-hundred arrows, sticks, cord for the fabrication of bows,
knives, pistols, a rifle, and a Hausa war drum."
[108]
The leaders or amirs of this revolt
were thirteen Muslims. Twelve of them were Hausa and one of them was Malinke.
There names were Tiburcio, Guilherme, Andre', Jose', Luiz, Faustino, Alexandre,
Simplicio, Francisco, Cosme, Ignacio, Antonio and Balthazar. These prisoners were all sentenced to receive
150 lashes in the public square of Salvador. The leaders Balthazar and Antonio
were executed.
[109]
The
Bahian slave revolt of May, 1807 was a bloodless affair and was crushed before
it could get underway. This was due to
the hypocritical informants who because of their collaborative efforts took the
element of surprise from the revolt. The
conditions of success for the revolt were not present and it fell short of its
expectations. However, the Bahian authorities were alarmed that a revolt of
such magnitude could have initiated in the first place. As a result of this revolt the Governor
decreed a series of laws that would rigorously check the movement and
activities of the de ganho slaves in the urban districts of Bahia. This
decree stipulated that "all bondmen found in the streets after nine p.m.
without a letter or in the company of his master would be arrested and
administered 150 lashes."
[110]
Fig: 3 - The above manuscript is the writing of
Alexandre, one of the Amirs of
the 1807 Muslim slave revolt. The text is a quotation from the Quran: “In the name of Allah,
the Beneficent, the Merciful. We said: O Fire be cool and safe for Abraham.”
Many
of the written documents by the Muslims were seized and burnt and there only
survived small fragments of the written testimony of these African Muslim
freedom fighters. However, one such writing did survive and gives some insight
into the motivations and zeal of the Muslims of Bahia. One of the amirs of the revolt named Amam (or Imam) Alexandre left us a small
manuscript that had written on it the basmalla (In the name of Allah the
Beneficent the Merciful) followed by verse 69 of Surat al-Anbiya. The
calligraphic style is a clear western jihaadi mode prevalent in the
Central Bilad’s-Sudan, which demonstrates that Alexandre was trained as
a scribe or was among the scholarly clerics before his capture. The text he
chose to write is write significant because it demonstrates how the Muslims
viewed themselves in the light of Bahian slave culture. The manuscript reads:
“In the name of Allah, the Beneficent
the Merciful: We said: O Fire! Be cool and safe for Abraham”
[111]
This
small manuscript was probably written as a form of talisman of protection,
supplication and exhortation. Shehu Uthman Dan Fuduye’ gave us an
indication of the meaning that this statement: ‘In the name of Allah the
Beneficent the Merciful’, had to African Muslim clerics during that period,
in his Kitab al-Ism al-Athem where he said;
“Realize that the noble basmala
[112]
is composed of four words: In the name of (bismi); the
expression of majesty (Allah); the Beneficent (ar-Rahmaan); the
Merciful (ar-Raheem). The first word points to the personal pronoun of
the Name that comes after it. As for the word that comes after it, it is the
Great Name, which is Allah. This is because the Great Name is the name
of majesty and is the axis (qutb) of the Divine Names to which they all
return and around which they all revolve. The name Allah is like the
distinguishing mark of the remaining Divine Names. This is because if you were
to ask for example: ‘Who is the Beneficent (ar-Rahman)?’ Then you would
say: ‘Allah’. Then, this would be the answer regarding the remainder of the
Divine Names related to it. The Beneficent (ar-Rahman), the Merciful (ar-Rahim)
are two Divine Attributes of this noble Name. For each of the three Divine
Names there are intrinsic qualities (Khawwaas) and secrets (asraar),
which only Allah ta`ala can enumerate.”
[113]
Shaykh Muhammad Tukur, one of the students of the Shehu, who had
reached an advanced level of learning in the science of the secrets regarding
the Names of Allah said the following about the basmalla: “Bismillahi is the share of those in need of the Merciful One. It is the share of those who
are reliant upon the Compassionate One. It is the share of all the believers.
The ‘Bismillahi protects the ship from inundation. The ‘Bismillahi will redeem the Umma of Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him
peace on the Day of Standing among the masses of the people…The Bismillahi was raised up in the time of Abraham al-Khalil, upon him be peace. It
was revealed to him when he was in the catapult and then Allah redeemed him
from the fire.”
[114]
Thus, Alexandre,
was evoking the power of protection that is intrinsic within the basmalla to guard the Muslims against the onslaught of the Portuguese disbelievers. He
then followed this with recording the verse that the basmalla is
intimately connected with and the personage with whom the basmalla redeemed from the fires of Nimrod. According to Imam al-Qurtubi in his Jaami1
al-Ahkaam: “When Prophet Abraham disrupted the aims of Nimrod by means of
the Divine evidence given him, they fell back on their pride and might,
committing sins by setting about on the path of oppression, repression and
dominance. He then called for the burning of Abraham by saying: ‘Give
assistance to your gods b y burning him because he has denounced them and
imputed faults to them.’ It was related that Nimrod built a tall edifice that
was eighty cubits tall and forty cubits wide. Ibn Is’haaq said: They gathered
together firewood for an entire month and then lit it until the fire blazed and
became so severe that if a bird was to fly over it, its wings would catch afire
from the heat and the flames. They then chained Ibrahim and placed him in a
iron catapult. Then the entire heavens and earth and the Angels and the entire creation
(besides men and jinn) sent up a single cry: “Our Lord! Ibrahim is the only human on earth who truly
worships You. He will be burnt for Your sake. Give us permission to
assist him.” Allah ta`ala then said: “If he seeks any assistance in
anything from any of you and calls out, then he should assist him. I have given
permission for that. However if he does not call upon anyone except Me, then I
am most knowledgeable of him and I will be his guardian and protector.” When
they wished to throw him into the fire, an Angel who is the keeper of the
treasure of the waters came to him and said: ‘O Abraham, if you like I can
extinguish the fire with water.’ He responded: ‘I have no need of you against
it.’ Then there came to him an Angel who is responsible for the winds and said:
‘O Abraham, if you like I can cause the fire to vaporize and evaporate.’ He
said: ‘No!’ He then turned his face to the heavens and said: ‘O Allah You are
Singular in the heavens and I am singular on earth! There is no one who will worship
You besides me. Therefore I rely upon Allah the best of Guardians.’ It was
related by Abi ibn Ka`b that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him
peace said: “When Abraham was thrown into the fire by means of the catapult,
the Angel Jibreel came to him while he was flying towards the fire and said: ‘O
Abraham do you have any need of me?’ He replied: ‘As for as from you, no!’ Then
Jibreel said: ‘Then ask of your Lord!’Abraham replied: ‘His prior knowledge of
my condition suffices me from asking of Him!’Then Allah ta`ala said: ‘O Fire! Be cool and safe for Abraham’” The scholars of Islam have agreed that
this state of Abraham was the essence of reliance upon Allah ta`ala (tawwakkul)
and comprised of the servant being completely empty and not in need of anything
except Allah. This state necessitates the Divine Assistance against tyrants and
oppressors. It is for this reason that Amir Alexandre deployed this
particular Qur’anic verse in the face of the repression and tyranny of
the Portuguese.
The revolt of 1807 was led and planned by
Muslims. The leaders of the eleven casebres where all the planning and
coordinating took place were Muslim. The two leaders, the imam and his wazir,
were Muslim. The number of those other
slaves and freemen who participated is unknown. But one can perhaps speculate that each casebres had at least ten
rebels under one leader, which would bring the rebels number to about 120
men. I suspect the number was
considerably higher than that. Some
obscurantist scholars may assert that the fact that the leadership of the
revolt was Muslim does not mean that the others shared the same ideals and
aspirations as they did. That is true for any revolution or insurrection. The masses of the oppressed people are hardly
ever ideologically neither inclined nor motivated to rebel. They are mostly motivated by the basic desire
for freedom, justice and the removal of oppression. However, it has always been the leaders of
the movements who defined the movement and after whom the revolt was named. The Bolshevik revolution was only so named
because of its leaders. The Jacobin
revolution was so named because of those few who laid down the ideological
basis of the revolution. In this same
manner, committed Muslims led the revolts and insurrections of Bahia during
this period. Therefore, the revolts were
Islamic revolts.
The
second in a series of revolts to take place in Bahia was the revolt of January
4, 1809. Again the Hausa Muslims
dominated this revolt. However, there
was a cross-ethnic alliance between Hausa, Yorubas and Ewes. These divers
ethnic groups were recent converts to Islam by the efforts of the Hausa alufas.
[115]
This revolt was mainly organized in the
rural areas among the food-producing regions of Nazare das Farinhas. Perhaps these organizations were the same
elements that were able to escape capture during the first revolt of 1807. These slaves were all runaways from the
plantations of Nazare' das Farinhas, the capital of Salvador and from surrounding
plantations in the Reconcavo. Thus, the makeup of this rebel force was de
ganho slaves as well as escravo slaves. Little is known about the leaders of this
movement or its plans and objectives. But this revolt was much more bloodier than the previous one. It began on January 4, 1809, when an attack
was made against Nazare' in order to capture arms and supplies; which was done
by an estimated 200 to 300 runaway slaves.
[116]
Unlike the 1807 uprising, this revolt did have the element of surprise,
but it was unsuccessful in capturing the armament house in Nazare'. The slaves were forced to retreat back into
the bush, leaving many dead behind them and killing several soldiers. Two days
later Salvadorian soldiers accompanied by local militia chased the rebels and
defeated them in a bloody battle. Many
of these rebels escaped and made the hijra into the neighboring province
of Sergipe, where they formented more slave uprisings.
[117]
Some
124 men and women were captured by the authorities of whom 85 were men. They were taken back to Salvador where, on
September of 1810, they were publicly beaten and deported to other provinces in
Brazil.
[118]
The revolt of 1809
demonstrated that diverse ethnic groups could form an alliance for a common
cause of revolt against slavery in Bahia. The cement of this unity was
Islam. The aftermath of this revolt is
that the Bahian authorities made tighter controls and regulations on the
movement of slaves resulting in the end of the first phases of the slave
revolts of Bahia.
The Islamic Slave Revolts of 1814-1816
The
revolts of 1807 and 1809 were insignificant in comparison to the revolts of
1814 and 1816. The first of these was
the revolt that took place on February 28, 1814. More than 200 enslave Hausa Muslim from the
city of Salvador, and the rural district of Itapoa united together to free themselves from
the yoke of slavery.
[119]
The
insurrection was planned to coincide with the holiday Semana Santa that
would last a whole week. Again like the 1807 revolt, it was to be started after
the fajr dawn prayer at 4 a.m. in the morning. The name of the leader of this revolt is
unknown, but he was a freedman and merchant of Salvador.
[120]
They
first attacked the home of Manuel Ignacio da Cunha Menezes and killed his
foreman and several members of his family. They liberated the slaves of his plantation, who joined the
rebellion. The rebels then attacked two
neigh-boring plantations owned by Joao Vaz Carvalho and Francisco Lourenco
Herculano. Here they liberated slaves
and killed some who would not join them. The rebels then moved on to Itapoa and destroyed buildings, burnt crops
and killed several whites. From there they went to the rural areas surrounding
Salvador.
[121]
When
Condos dos Arcos, the Governor of Bahia, received news of the rebellion, he
dispatched a cavalry led by Colonel Jose' Thomas Boccaciari to put an end to
the revolt. This army along with local
militiamen tracked the revolutionaries to the region of Santo Amoro near the
River Joanes. A heated battle ensued where many Africans and Bahian soldiers
were killed. However, because of the superior arms of the soldiers they were
able to defeat the insurgents after two hours of fighting.
[122]
More
than 31 Hausa Muslims were taken prisoner and led back to Salvador. Other Hausa rebels were captured in other
rural regions in the Reconcavo. Of these captives 4 were executed by hanging,
23 deported to Portuguese colonies in Africa
[123]
, and the remainder died while in custody
from ill treatment by their captors.
[124]
In
this revolt more than 13 whites were killed and 8 others seriously
wounded. This induced the Justice of the
Peace, Francisco Jose' de Freitas, on March 16, 1814 to send a general
complaint to the Governor of Bahia;
"...those Negroes of Bahia, who are
most resolute, fearless, and capable of any enterprise, particularly those of
the Hausa nation; our proof is that furnished by Your Excellency, who cited
their attacks undertaken with such fury and abandon, some refusing to surrender
until dead."
[125]
As
a result of this complaint, the Governor increased the number of police in the
city, dispatched rural militia into the bushes of Bahia to destroy quilombo
communities, and renewed the punishment of 150 lashes for slaves out at
night after nine p.m. without a pass. However, these measures did nothing to halt the escalation of the revolt
of 1816. This revolt took place on
February 12, 1816 near the Santo Amaro region of the Reconvaco. This area was the same area where the fierce
battle occured between the Hausa Muslim led revolt and the government soldiers
in 1814. However this revolt was not a
planned rebellion like the previous ones. It was a spontaneous revolt executed
by about 50 Hausa escravo slaves and lasted for four days. The possible cause of this revolt was the
unusually harsh winter which hit the Bahian Reconcavo in 1815. Many horses and oxen died which increased the
average work load of the slaves. There
was also an increase in prices of staple goods at that time which added to the
difficult plight of the slaves.
[126]
The
revolt began at 1 a.m. in the morning of February 12, 1816 when 25 to 30 slaves
burnt the crops and barns of some eight plantations. By nine o'clock that morning Colonel Bento de
Araujo Lopes Villasboas received news of the revolt. He then organized a local militia and with
regular troops se out towards Santa Amaro. By this time the Africans had retreated back in to the woods of Cabaxi
and Poucoponto where they had established a base of operations.
[127]
After three days the insurgents raided the
village of Santo Amaro and killed a number of whites and wounded some and then
again retreated into the woods. On
February 15th the army and local militia tracked down the insurrectionists to
their camp where a battle took place, killing many Africansand capturing about
eight. The soldiers also captured some
weapons and musical instruments. Nothing
is known about the punishment the prisoners received.
[128]
The repressive
measures created by the authorities of Bahia were designed not only to check
the revolutionary spirit of the slaves, but also to humiliate all Africans,
whether slave or free. The Court passed
a decree on 24th August, 1816 prohibiting all Africans, slave or free, from
being in the streets after nine p.m.
[129]
It is clear that the whites of Bahia saw the
slave revolts in Bahia as a hostile encounter between whites and Africans. The white and mulatto citizens of Bahia used
the courts to humiliate all Africans and to 'put them in their places'. Among these measures was that Africans should
not be allowed to sit before any white, but always be forced to stand up as a
sign of respect. Another one was that the government provided for the
immigration of European families into Bahia in order to diminish the racial
imbalance in favor of the Africans. The Hausa and Yoruba Muslims were a proud
and dignified people and thus the whites wanted to deflate as much of this
dignity as they could. This revolt
proved to be the last of the Hausa Muslim dominated revolts.
The Slave Revolts of 1822 -1830
The
year of 1822 marked the beginning of the Independence movement for Brazil, led
by the free population of Creoles of mixed race origin. Like the war of
independence in America, it was not fought to bring freedom, justice and
equality to everyone, but for Anglo-Americans only. This double standard seemed to have been a
trend among slave owning whites and Creoles all over the world. From the very beginning of the institution if
slavery in Brazil, the Creoles were given more privileges than the African slaves. They assimilated more readily than them and
they spoke the language of the Portuguese masters exclusively. Creoles were given domestic labor as opposed
to field labor. They were given gifts, granted time-off periods and given early
manumission. Creole women were preferred
as concubines as opposed to their African sisters.
[130]
For
this reason considerable resentment existed between the Creole and the Africans
of Bahia. Many of the free Creole owned their own plantations and were
reportedly "more cruel in their treatment of Africansthan the whites".
[131]
And
the Creoles were thoroughly opposed to the African slave revolts because it
would put them at a disadvantage with regard to social status if the
revolutions had obtained their aims. For this reason the Bahian whites
encouraged rivalry between Africans and Creoles in order to divide and rule the
colored population.
The Great Islamic Revolt of 1835 or the 'Revolt of the Males'
We
mentioned earlier that Islam as a religion was utilized as a mobilizing factor
for the diverse ethnic groups of the Western and Central Sudan. We also discussed at length some elements of
the diffusion of Islamic civilization in these regions of Africa. Proof was
given of the transmigration of, some if not all of, these elements into the society
of Bahia. Islam played a major role in the slave
revolts of 1807 to 1816, where Hausa Muslims dominated these revolutions and
directed its movement. This, however,
did not mean that other ethnic groups were excluded. On the contrary, Malinkes were apart of the
leadership of the revolt of 1807 and Yoruba Ewe converts participated in the
revolts of 1809. However, the revolts of
1814 and 1816, seem to have been exclusively Hausa.
[158]
After
the revolt of 1816, which was followed by a thorough repression of Muslim
slaves in their religion, dress and customs, there seem to have been a
withdrawal underground of the Muslim community and a change of tactics. Because from the revolts of 1822 until 1830,
the slave revolts were dominated by Yoruba animist. There is however reports that a Yoruba Muslim
slave named Cornelio took part in one of the revolts in 1826 and a free Nupe
Muslim, Antonio Bomcaminho faced trial for his role in the revolt of 1828 and
in supplying weapons to the Creole military conspiracy that same year.
[159]
It is clear that the Muslim made a cautious
tactical withdrawal as a result of three decades of failure to realize their
goals. This withdrawal took the form of
a spiritual hijra where the Muslims could regroup for a few years until
destiny could afford them to make a final attempt at overthrowing the
repressive Bahian society. This tactic
was not new to the Muslims. For this was
their methodology among the Yoruba, Ashanti and Dahomey animists until they
were afforded the opportunity to establish the jihad. This tactic finds its precedents in Islamic
jurisprudence, especially in the writings of the reformer who influenced the
ideas of Muslims in the whole of the Sudan, Shehu Uthman Dan
Fuduye’. In his famous book on hijra, jihad, and Islamic governance - he says;
"...emigration from the lands of
the disbelievers is obligatory upon every Muslim...and nobody is excused for
neglecting it except the oppressed. Allah says; 'Except the oppressed from among men, women and children
who have not the means', i.e. who have neither power nor funds to emigrate,
'Nor can they find a way to escape,' i.e. a way towards a land into which they
can emigrate, as al-Suyuti said in his Takmila."
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Glossary
`isha, 67: Arabic,
evening prayer; one of the five obligatory prayers of Islam.
abada, 63: Yoruba,
termed used in Bahia for the long white Muslim dress.
al-faqih, 14: Arabic,
Islamic jurist or lawyer.
al-lawh, 62: Arabic, a
wooden board 10 inches by 24 inches, used to write Qur'anic lessons and the to
memorize the
fundamental
teachings of Islam.
alfa, 14: Fulfulbe',
term meaning great scholar, it is derived from the Arabic al-faqih.
alfalu, 14: Fulfulbe',
verb meaning to devine or foretell.
alim, 20: Arabic, scholar or one knowledgable of the
Islamic shari`a.
allo, 62: Hausa, a corrupted form of the Arabic
al-lawh; see above.
almamy, 55: Yoruba corruption
of the Arabic imam, the leader of the Muslim community.
alufa, 14: Yoruba, a corruption of the Fulfulbe alfa,
Muslim cleric.
aqiqah, 35: Arabic,
naming celebration done seven days after the birth of a baby.
as-Saff, 84: The Ranks, name given to the sixty-first
chapter of the Qur'an.
asr, 67: Arabic, afternoon prayer; one of the five obligatory prayers in Islam.
baraka, 55: Arabic, a spiritual force which flows from
blessed individuals or blessed objects.
Batalhao dos Libertos, 44: Portuguese, 'the Liberty Battalion', name
given to the slaves who fought on the side of the
Brazilians
during the War of Independence in 1822.
bozales, 7: Portuguese, a name given to African slaves
shipped directly from Africa to Brazil.
candomble, 33: Portuguese, Afro-Brazilian religion of the
Ewe-Yoruba tradition.
cantos de pretos, 29: Portuguese, the street corners where African
slaves met to be hired by potential employees,
around
which emerged small African markets.
casebres, 37: Portuguese, the name given to the secret
meeting places, both urban and rural where Muslim slaves met
to do
their worship and to plan their revolts.
Dajjal, 21: Arabic, the name given to the Anti-Christ or
any person who is a charlatan in religion.
de ganho, 29: Portuguese, a name given to slaves who lived
seperately from their masters and who hired themselves
out
everyday and paid their masters a percentage of ehat they earned.
dhuhr, 67: Arabic, the noon prayer; one of the five
obligatory prayers in Islam.
eid, 55: Arabic, One of two major celebrations which
mark the end of fasting and pilgrimage in Islam.
engenhos, 28: Portuguese, sugar plantation.
escravo, 29: Portuguese, a name given to slaves who lived
and worked with the slave master.
fajr, 37: Arabic, dawn prayer; one of the five
obligatory prayers in Islam.
Hajj, 55: Pilgrimage to Mecca, an obligation to be
performed a every Muslim at least once in a life-time.
hijab, 86: Arabic, protection, covering; amulet or
talisman.
hijra, 5: Arabic, to emigrate or flee from disbelief or
oppression.
ibaada, 63: Arabic, any act of worship.
Illius qui, 6: Latin, an edict passed by the Catholic church
in 1442 guaranteeing spiritual salvation
to all those who
would
assist in the raiding for slaves.
Imale, 14: Yoruba, the name given to those who follow
the Muslim faith.
imam, 35: Arabic, leader of a Muslim community.
jalabiyas, 63: Arabic, distinctive long garments worn by
Muslim men.
Jama`at, 16: Arabic, a community united around an Islamic
ideology.
jihad, 5: Arabic, to struggle against temporeal or
spiritual enemies.
Juntes de Liberadade, 31: Portuguese, an organization established by
slaves and freedmen to manumit slaves.
karamat, 20: Arabic, miracles.
ladinos, 7: Portuguese,
acculturated slave.
lailat'l-mi`raj, 55: Arabic, the night of the heavenly ascension
of Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem to
the seven
heavens,
where he recieved the obligations of prayer.
lailat'l-qadr, 55: Arabic, the night in which the Qur'an was
revealed to Muhammad.
madeira, 46: Portuguese, religious objects used in the candomble rites.
madrasas, 52: Arabic, schools or colleges where the
fundamentals of Islam are taught.
maghrib, 67: Arabic, sunset prayer; one of the five
obligatory prayers in Islam.
Mahdi, 21: Arabic, the Awaited Reformer who renew the
religion of Muhammad and act as forerunner to Jesus.
malams, 20: Hausa, Muslim cleric or teacher.
marabout, 22: Wolof corruption of the Arabic muraabit,
a learned individual who has mastered the outward and
inward
aspect of Islam and protects the religion from harm.
pardos, 65: Portuguese, mulatto a person of mixed race.
patacas, 87: Portuguese, Brazilian currency equivalent to
320 reis.
quilombo, 41: Portuguese, a run-away slave community
established in the bush.
Ramadan, 55: Arabic, the month of fasting in Islam.
reis, 62: Brazilian currency during the 19th century,
equivalent to 39.2 pences.
sadaqa, 62: Arabic, voluntary alms or charity.
salaat, 49: Arabic, the name for prayer in Islam.
salat'l-istikhara, 68: Arabic, the prayer to seek aid and
assistance.
salat'l-istisqa, 68: Arabic, the prayer for rain.
salat'l-khawf, 68: Arabic, the prayer of fear.
salat'l-khusuf, 68: Arabic, the prayer for the eclipse of the sun
or moon.
sibha, 53: Arabic, stringed beads usually of wood which Muslims
use to remember Allah.
sihara, 88: Arabic, magician.
Sunna, 23: Arabic, the words, deeds, actions, behavior
and approval of Muhammad.
taqiyya, 51: Arabic, dissimilation.
taqwa, 19: Arabic, mindful of Allah.
tesseba, 63: Yoruba corruption of the Arabic sibha.
tira, 86: Yoruba, amulets and talismans.
ulama, : Arabic, plural for alim, scholar or
one learned in Islamic jurisprudence.
wala, 62: Yoruba, corruption of the Arabic al-lawh,
writing board.
wali, 20: Arabic, one befriended by Allah.
wazir, 36: Arabic, the second in charge after the amir or ruler.
zakat, 54: Arabic, obligatory alms on the wealth of the
Muslim which they are obligated to pay.
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