The Islamic Slave Revolts of

Bahia , Brazil

UNDER CONSTRUCTION

It is far better to follow something, than lead nothing

-- Owen 'Alik Shahadah, Writer

  by

MUHAMMAD SHAREEF

Edited by Owen 'Alik Shahadah
Copyright © 1418/1998 Muhammad Shareef

"In the face of cultural aggression of all sorts, in the face of all disintegrating factors of the outside world, the most efficient weapon with which a people can arm itself is this feeling of historical continuity" [1]

However, when the historical conscience and culture of an oppressed group have been erased and destroyed, it determines the manner in which they will resist or if they will opt for resistance at all.  Certain African-American leaders and organizations in the U.S. are examples where the collective historical conscience was successfully eradicated, they then chose not to resist the cultural aggression of their European American aggressors and opted to assimilate and gradually effect change in the society in which they were held captive, by means of  `civil disobedience' executed in a non-violent way. This, however, was not the norm. Herbert Apethker points out rather succinctly that armed struggle was “rather a regular and ever-recurring phenomenon in the life” of America . [2] Every year from 1511 until 1864, in every region of the North American continent, where Africans lived, there were revolts or insurrections for freedom and justice using the medium of armed struggle. These slave revolts occurred during a time when the Africans in America still possessed some small remnant of their cultural heritage.  Nat Turner's mother and grandmother taught him about Africa , which engendered in Nat a sense of self worth and resulted in his eventual call to arms. [3]  

             In other cases where the historical and cultural conscience of the slave was eradicated, they resisted utilizing the terms and frames of reference of the oppressors.  This type of resistance can be called secondary resistance, because it aims to define the insurgency in terms that the oppressor is familiar with.  The ideological basis of the resistance is couched in the terms that are dear to the aspirations of the slaver or colonizer. In some ways, secondary resistance becomes a confirmation and corroboration of the `innate superiority' of the oppressor’s culture.  For this reason, secondary resistances have been more successful in the short term, because the ‘master’ class and the "colonial official class could not disavow the normative validity of metropolitan standards". [4]   In the long term, however, secondary resistance works in the favor of the slave-master class or colonizers because the oppressed will be indebted to its oppressors on an ideological level and the ordeal of slavery and colonization becomes justified, because through it `the light of civilization' is successfully passed to the `inferiors'.  And thus, the oppressor sits back and sighs, feeling exonerated and vindicated, as he benevolently looks down upon his ex-subjects or once slaves in their awkward and inept attempt to replicate the dominant culture.  The deplorable condition of African Americans in the U.S. and the present political crisis in the whole of Africa are glaring proofs of this phenomenon. In fact, those acts of resistance which met with eventual approval from the dominant Anglo-American culture, were those which had nothing at all to do with the ‘ideals of the founding fathers’, while those which were marginalized and rejected, were those acts of resistance which closely resembled the ideals that initiated the so-called ‘American Revolution’. Thus, the un-American ideas of non-violence espoused by Martin Luther King, were accepted over the purely American ideas of military resistance espoused by al-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz. [5]

            An oppressed group having the ability to define its own ideology and culture, on the other hand, represents primary resistance.  It emerges from the priority of a cohesive belief system backed up by a nation state or polity and a continuous and persistent sense of historical conscience. This type of revolt or resistance sees itself inherently superior to its oppressor and it does not capitulate to the terms of reference of its oppressors, but defines itself and its oppressors from its own terms of reference.  The oppressors have never tolerated this type of resistance, because it seeks to destroy the very foundation and structure of the oppressors’ system.  The ideals, customs, traditions and political constitution of the oppressor is seen as innately inferior and in need of eradication by means of a total transformation of society and the rebirth of the ideals and culture which induced the slaves or colonized group to revolt in the first place.  Primary resistance can only emerge when the historical conscience, the linguistic factor and the psychological temperament are intact and extant. [6]

            Historical examples of primary resistance to European hegemony, in particular, were the resistance demonstrated by the unitary state of Ethiopia in its war against Italian aggression. Another was the heroic armed struggle put forward by the Ashanti against the British in the late 19th century.  Finally, there were the crushing defeats, which the Europeans suffered at the hands of various Islamic resistance movements throughout Africa.  Among them were the resistance of Samore Toure in Guinea, Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi of the Sudan, Abd’l-Qaadir al-Jaza'iri of Algeria, the Sunissiya of Libya, Muhammad ibn Abdallah ibn Hassan of Somalia, and the Sokoto Islamic resistance of northern Nigeria.  Each of these revolts against European aggression were characterized by a deep historical conscience of itself, a unified linguistic cohesiveness, and a psychological temperament which gave it a sense of innate superiority over their European aggressors.

            Were examples of this type of cultural cohesiveness transmitted to the `new world' during the Atlantic slave trade?  Were there examples of the persistence of African traditions and historical conscience being diffused into the western hemisphere?  And if so, to what degree did this diffusion of African culture exists?  Was this the primary cause of the many slave revolts, which affected the Caribbean, the United States and South America?  These questions and others will be examined in this study, which will attempt to demonstrate the emergence of primary resistance movements characterized by historical conscience, linguistic cohesiveness and psychological temperament (demonstrated through religious beliefs) in the western hemisphere, with specified reference to the slave revolts which took place in Bahia, Brazil between 1807 and 1835.  The research will demonstrate that the slave revolts of Bahia were, for the most part, Islamic in character, and were not just a reaction to the degradations of slavery.  There was a desire by the Muslim community of Bahia, both slave and freedmen (assisted by others), to replicate the responses, which were typical of Muslim responses to cultural aggression in the African continent.  These responses can be summed up into two, which ultimately leads to self-governance. They are hijra (flight or emigration) and jihad (struggle).  These two terms defined the Islamic response to cultural aggression from the earliest times of Islam until the emergence of the 19th century West African jihad movements that had direct influence upon events in Bahia.  It would be absurd for a scholar to say that the existence of Iberian culture in Brazil was no proof that Iberian culture was transmuted into Brazil.  The refutation of that would not need documentation or citation.  Likewise, no refutation is warranted to the fact that Bahia witnessed from enslaved Sudanese Muslim and freedmen a transmigration of the same Islamically inspired upheavals which were taking place in Central and Western Sudan from the 15th century to the 19th century.  This research will highlight that these slave revolts were not just a reaction to Portuguese slavery, but was the persistence of a continuous tradition that emerged centuries before the Europeans arrived in Africa.  Only historians who are obscurantists and who lack intellectual uprightness would assert the opposing view. Western academics as well as western intelligence agencies have long suppressed the full truth of the role that Islam, and particularly ‘African’ Islam has played in the formation of states in the western hemisphere. This humble study seeks to shed some light on this shadowy subject so that a true picture of western culture can be seen for what it is, having its sources not just in the Judeo-Christian and Euro centric idea; but getting its most explosive ideas for freedom and justice from the persistence of enslaved Sudanic Muslim and their tenacity for self-determination.

The Islamic Revolt of 1807 -1809

            For the first time since the importing of African slaves into Bahia, there would emerge a series of revolts that would rock the ‘calm’ of Bahian society.  The first such revolt was that which occured on the evening of May 27, 1807. Its principle organizers were two African Muslims of Hausa descent. One was a slave named Balthazar who was 'owned' by Francisco das Chagas.  Balthazar was the imam of this revolt, whose home on Corpo Santo Street was used as the mosque and meeting place where weapons and Arabic literature were kept. [97]   The other leader was a freedman by the name of Antonio, who was chosen as the wazir or 'ambassador' to establish contacts and coordinate the plans between the urban slaves and the rural ones.  This job was easy for him because he alone possessed the freedom of movement that would not be suspect.  He worked as a merchant traveling between Santo Amaro and Salvador. [98]   What is significant here, is that a freedman had accepted the leadership of a ‘slave’ simply because of the latter’s superiority in knowledge and taqwa (fearful awareness of Allah). This would seem problematic in Islam because it is not permissible to give the oath of allegiance to a slave. [99] The only exception is when the Amir or Imam is captured in war and there is cause to believe that he will be eventually freed. Sultan Muhammad Bello said:

“The contract with Muslim leaders (a’ima) is only annulled when the objectives of leadership has been rendered null and void, like apostasy, recognized madness, or when the leader has been made a war captive or imprisoned and there is no hope of him being freed, likewise by a sickness which causes the leader to forget knowledge, by blindness, deafness or muteness, or when he removes himself due to his inability to establish the welfare of the Muslims…” [100]

The Muslims under the leadership of Balthazar and Antonio, planned to first set fire to the customs house and church of Nazareth in order to detract attention.  Then the Muslims would seize the Nazareth arsenal, where guns and other weapons were stored.  The revolt was many months in the planning, but on May 22, 1807 the Governor of Bahia received news of an impending revolt by the "Hausa nation". The Governor conducted and investigation that lasted for three days in which he gathered all of the details of the plot.  'Reliable slaves' were employed to infiltrate the insurrection and to report upon its activities. By the 26th of May the Governor learned a full description of the size of the rebel organization and its leaders. [107] As a result of this knowledge the Governor ordered his soldiers to surround the staging areas of the revolt in Nazareth where they were scheduled to assemble. The soldiers, led by Captain Joao de Chastinet, were able to arrest seven Muslims in the city and four in the rural districts.  Many of the other rebels escaped realizing that their leaders had been captured.  An investigation of the casebres revealed "four-hundred arrows, sticks, cord for the fabrication of bows, knives, pistols, a rifle, and a Hausa war drum." [108] The leaders or amirs of this revolt were thirteen Muslims. Twelve of them were Hausa and one of them was Malinke. There names were Tiburcio, Guilherme, Andre', Jose', Luiz, Faustino, Alexandre, Simplicio, Francisco, Cosme, Ignacio, Antonio and Balthazar.  These prisoners were all sentenced to receive 150 lashes in the public square of Salvador. The leaders Balthazar and Antonio were executed. [109]

  The Bahian slave revolt of May, 1807 was a bloodless affair and was crushed before it could get underway.  This was due to the hypocritical informants who because of their collaborative efforts took the element of surprise from the revolt.  The conditions of success for the revolt were not present and it fell short of its expectations. However, the Bahian authorities were alarmed that a revolt of such magnitude could have initiated in the first place.  As a result of this revolt the Governor decreed a series of laws that would rigorously check the movement and activities of the de ganho slaves in the urban districts of Bahia. This decree stipulated that "all bondmen found in the streets after nine p.m. without a letter or in the company of his master would be arrested and administered 150 lashes." [110]

Fig: 3 - The above manuscript is the writing of Alexandre, one of the Amirs of the 1807 Muslim slave revolt. The text is a quotation from the Quran: “In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. We said: O Fire be cool and safe for Abraham.”

            Many of the written documents by the Muslims were seized and burnt and there only survived small fragments of the written testimony of these African Muslim freedom fighters. However, one such writing did survive and gives some insight into the motivations and zeal of the Muslims of Bahia. One of the amirs of the revolt named Amam (or Imam) Alexandre left us a small manuscript that had written on it the basmalla (In the name of Allah the Beneficent the Merciful) followed by verse 69 of Surat al-Anbiya. The calligraphic style is a clear western jihaadi mode prevalent in the Central Bilad’s-Sudan, which demonstrates that Alexandre was trained as a scribe or was among the scholarly clerics before his capture. The text he chose to write is write significant because it demonstrates how the Muslims viewed themselves in the light of Bahian slave culture. The manuscript reads:

“In the name of Allah, the Beneficent the Merciful: We said: O Fire! Be cool and safe for Abraham” [111]

            This small manuscript was probably written as a form of talisman of protection, supplication and exhortation. Shehu Uthman Dan Fuduye’ gave us an indication of the meaning that this statement: ‘In the name of Allah the Beneficent the Merciful’, had to African Muslim clerics during that period, in his Kitab al-Ism al-Athem where he said;

“Realize that the noble basmala [112] is composed of four words: In the name of (bismi); the expression of majesty (Allah); the Beneficent (ar-Rahmaan); the Merciful (ar-Raheem). The first word points to the personal pronoun of the Name that comes after it. As for the word that comes after it, it is the Great Name, which is Allah. This is because the Great Name is the name of majesty and is the axis (qutb) of the Divine Names to which they all return and around which they all revolve. The name Allah is like the distinguishing mark of the remaining Divine Names. This is because if you were to ask for example: ‘Who is the Beneficent (ar-Rahman)?’ Then you would say: ‘Allah’. Then, this would be the answer regarding the remainder of the Divine Names related to it. The Beneficent (ar-Rahman), the Merciful (ar-Rahim) are two Divine Attributes of this noble Name. For each of the three Divine Names there are intrinsic qualities (Khawwaas) and secrets (asraar), which only Allah ta`ala can enumerate.” [113]

Shaykh Muhammad Tukur, one of the students of the Shehu, who had reached an advanced level of learning in the science of the secrets regarding the Names of Allah said the following about the basmalla: “Bismillahi is the share of those in need of the Merciful One. It is the share of those who are reliant upon the Compassionate One. It is the share of all the believers. The ‘Bismillahi protects the ship from inundation. The ‘Bismillahi will redeem the Umma of Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace on the Day of Standing among the masses of the people…The Bismillahi was raised up in the time of Abraham al-Khalil, upon him be peace. It was revealed to him when he was in the catapult and then Allah redeemed him from the fire.” [114]

Thus, Alexandre, was evoking the power of protection that is intrinsic within the basmalla to guard the Muslims against the onslaught of the Portuguese disbelievers. He then followed this with recording the verse that the basmalla is intimately connected with and the personage with whom the basmalla redeemed from the fires of Nimrod. According to Imam al-Qurtubi in his Jaami1 al-Ahkaam: “When Prophet Abraham disrupted the aims of Nimrod by means of the Divine evidence given him, they fell back on their pride and might, committing sins by setting about on the path of oppression, repression and dominance. He then called for the burning of Abraham by saying: ‘Give assistance to your gods b y burning him because he has denounced them and imputed faults to them.’ It was related that Nimrod built a tall edifice that was eighty cubits tall and forty cubits wide. Ibn Is’haaq said: They gathered together firewood for an entire month and then lit it until the fire blazed and became so severe that if a bird was to fly over it, its wings would catch afire from the heat and the flames. They then chained Ibrahim and placed him in a iron catapult. Then the entire heavens and earth and the Angels and the entire creation (besides men and jinn) sent up a single cry: “Our Lord! Ibrahim is the only human on earth who truly worships You. He will be burnt for Your sake. Give us permission to assist him.” Allah ta`ala then said: “If he seeks any assistance in anything from any of you and calls out, then he should assist him. I have given permission for that. However if he does not call upon anyone except Me, then I am most knowledgeable of him and I will be his guardian and protector.” When they wished to throw him into the fire, an Angel who is the keeper of the treasure of the waters came to him and said: ‘O Abraham, if you like I can extinguish the fire with water.’ He responded: ‘I have no need of you against it.’ Then there came to him an Angel who is responsible for the winds and said: ‘O Abraham, if you like I can cause the fire to vaporize and evaporate.’ He said: ‘No!’ He then turned his face to the heavens and said: ‘O Allah You are Singular in the heavens and I am singular on earth! There is no one who will worship You besides me. Therefore I rely upon Allah the best of Guardians.’ It was related by Abi ibn Ka`b that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace said: “When Abraham was thrown into the fire by means of the catapult, the Angel Jibreel came to him while he was flying towards the fire and said: ‘O Abraham do you have any need of me?’ He replied: ‘As for as from you, no!’ Then Jibreel said: ‘Then ask of your Lord!’Abraham replied: ‘His prior knowledge of my condition suffices me from asking of Him!’Then Allah ta`ala said: ‘O Fire! Be cool and safe for Abraham’” The scholars of Islam have agreed that this state of Abraham was the essence of reliance upon Allah ta`ala (tawwakkul) and comprised of the servant being completely empty and not in need of anything except Allah. This state necessitates the Divine Assistance against tyrants and oppressors. It is for this reason that Amir Alexandre deployed this particular Qur’anic verse in the face of the repression and tyranny of the Portuguese.

The revolt of 1807 was led and planned by Muslims. The leaders of the eleven casebres where all the planning and coordinating took place were Muslim. The two leaders, the imam and his wazir, were Muslim.  The number of those other slaves and freemen who participated is unknown.  But one can perhaps speculate that each casebres had at least ten rebels under one leader, which would bring the rebels number to about 120 men.  I suspect the number was considerably higher than that.  Some obscurantist scholars may assert that the fact that the leadership of the revolt was Muslim does not mean that the others shared the same ideals and aspirations as they did. That is true for any revolution or insurrection.  The masses of the oppressed people are hardly ever ideologically neither inclined nor motivated to rebel.  They are mostly motivated by the basic desire for freedom, justice and the removal of oppression.  However, it has always been the leaders of the movements who defined the movement and after whom the revolt was named.  The Bolshevik revolution was only so named because of its leaders.  The Jacobin revolution was so named because of those few who laid down the ideological basis of the revolution.  In this same manner, committed Muslims led the revolts and insurrections of Bahia during this period.  Therefore, the revolts were Islamic revolts.

            The second in a series of revolts to take place in Bahia was the revolt of January 4, 1809.  Again the Hausa Muslims dominated this revolt.  However, there was a cross-ethnic alliance between Hausa, Yorubas and Ewes. These divers ethnic groups were recent converts to Islam by the efforts of the Hausa alufas. [115] This revolt was mainly organized in the rural areas among the food-producing regions of Nazare das Farinhas.  Perhaps these organizations were the same elements that were able to escape capture during the first revolt of 1807.  These slaves were all runaways from the plantations of Nazare' das Farinhas, the capital of Salvador and from surrounding plantations in the Reconcavo. Thus, the makeup of this rebel force was de ganho slaves as well as escravo slaves.  Little is known about the leaders of this movement or its plans and objectives.  But this revolt was much more bloodier than the previous one.  It began on January 4, 1809, when an attack was made against Nazare' in order to capture arms and supplies; which was done by an estimated 200 to 300 runaway slaves. [116]   Unlike the 1807 uprising, this revolt did have the element of surprise, but it was unsuccessful in capturing the armament house in Nazare'.  The slaves were forced to retreat back into the bush, leaving many dead behind them and killing several soldiers. Two days later Salvadorian soldiers accompanied by local militia chased the rebels and defeated them in a bloody battle.  Many of these rebels escaped and made the hijra into the neighboring province of Sergipe, where they formented more slave uprisings. [117]   Some 124 men and women were captured by the authorities of whom 85 were men.  They were taken back to Salvador where, on September of 1810, they were publicly beaten and deported to other provinces in Brazil. [118]

            The revolt of 1809 demonstrated that diverse ethnic groups could form an alliance for a common cause of revolt against slavery in Bahia. The cement of this unity was Islam.  The aftermath of this revolt is that the Bahian authorities made tighter controls and regulations on the movement of slaves resulting in the end of the first phases of the slave revolts of Bahia.

  The Islamic Slave Revolts of 1814-1816

 The revolts of 1807 and 1809 were insignificant in comparison to the revolts of 1814 and 1816.  The first of these was the revolt that took place on February 28, 1814.  More than 200 enslave Hausa Muslim from the city of Salvador, and the rural district of  Itapoa united together to free themselves from the yoke of slavery. [119]   The insurrection was planned to coincide with the holiday Semana Santa that would last a whole week. Again like the 1807 revolt, it was to be started after the fajr dawn prayer at 4 a.m. in the morning.  The name of the leader of this revolt is unknown, but he was a freedman and merchant of Salvador. [120]   They first attacked the home of Manuel Ignacio da Cunha Menezes and killed his foreman and several members of his family.  They liberated the slaves of his plantation, who joined the rebellion.  The rebels then attacked two neigh-boring plantations owned by Joao Vaz Carvalho and Francisco Lourenco Herculano.  Here they liberated slaves and killed some who would not join them.  The rebels then moved on to Itapoa and destroyed buildings, burnt crops and killed several whites. From there they went to the rural areas surrounding Salvador. [121]   When Condos dos Arcos, the Governor of Bahia, received news of the rebellion, he dispatched a cavalry led by Colonel Jose' Thomas Boccaciari to put an end to the revolt.  This army along with local militiamen tracked the revolutionaries to the region of Santo Amoro near the River Joanes. A heated battle ensued where many Africans and Bahian soldiers were killed. However, because of the superior arms of the soldiers they were able to defeat the insurgents after two hours of fighting. [122]   More than 31 Hausa Muslims were taken prisoner and led back to Salvador.  Other Hausa rebels were captured in other rural regions in the Reconcavo. Of these captives 4 were executed by hanging, 23 deported to Portuguese colonies in Africa [123] , and the remainder died while in custody from ill treatment by their captors. [124]

            In this revolt more than 13 whites were killed and 8 others seriously wounded.  This induced the Justice of the Peace, Francisco Jose' de Freitas, on March 16, 1814 to send a general complaint to the Governor of Bahia; 

"...those Negroes of Bahia, who are most resolute, fearless, and capable of any enterprise, particularly those of the Hausa nation; our proof is that furnished by Your Excellency, who cited their attacks undertaken with such fury and abandon, some refusing to surrender until dead." [125]

            As a result of this complaint, the Governor increased the number of police in the city, dispatched rural militia into the bushes of Bahia to destroy quilombo communities, and renewed the punishment of 150 lashes for slaves out at night after nine p.m. without a pass.  However, these measures did nothing to halt the escalation of the revolt of 1816.  This revolt took place on February 12, 1816 near the Santo Amaro region of the Reconvaco.  This area was the same area where the fierce battle occured between the Hausa Muslim led revolt and the government soldiers in 1814.  However this revolt was not a planned rebellion like the previous ones. It was a spontaneous revolt executed by about 50 Hausa escravo slaves and lasted for four days.  The possible cause of this revolt was the unusually harsh winter which hit the Bahian Reconcavo in 1815.  Many horses and oxen died which increased the average work load of the slaves.  There was also an increase in prices of staple goods at that time which added to the difficult plight of the slaves. [126]    The revolt began at 1 a.m. in the morning of February 12, 1816 when 25 to 30 slaves burnt the crops and barns of some eight plantations.  By nine o'clock that morning Colonel Bento de Araujo Lopes Villasboas received news of the revolt.  He then organized a local militia and with regular troops se out towards Santa Amaro.  By this time the Africans had retreated back in to the woods of Cabaxi and Poucoponto where they had established a base of operations. [127] After three days the insurgents raided the village of Santo Amaro and killed a number of whites and wounded some and then again retreated into the woods.  On February 15th the army and local militia tracked down the insurrectionists to their camp where a battle took place, killing many Africansand capturing about eight.  The soldiers also captured some weapons and musical instruments.  Nothing is known about the punishment the prisoners received. [128]

            The repressive measures created by the authorities of Bahia were designed not only to check the revolutionary spirit of the slaves, but also to humiliate all Africans, whether slave or free.  The Court passed a decree on 24th August, 1816 prohibiting all Africans, slave or free, from being in the streets after nine p.m. [129] It is clear that the whites of Bahia saw the slave revolts in Bahia as a hostile encounter between whites and Africans.  The white and mulatto citizens of Bahia used the courts to humiliate all Africans and to 'put them in their places'.  Among these measures was that Africans should not be allowed to sit before any white, but always be forced to stand up as a sign of respect. Another one was that the government provided for the immigration of European families into Bahia in order to diminish the racial imbalance in favor of the Africans. The Hausa and Yoruba Muslims were a proud and dignified people and thus the whites wanted to deflate as much of this dignity as they could.  This revolt proved to be the last of the Hausa Muslim dominated revolts.

The Slave Revolts of 1822 -1830

              The year of 1822 marked the beginning of the Independence movement for Brazil, led by the free population of Creoles of mixed race origin. Like the war of independence in America, it was not fought to bring freedom, justice and equality to everyone, but for Anglo-Americans only.  This double standard seemed to have been a trend among slave owning whites and Creoles all over the world.  From the very beginning of the institution if slavery in Brazil, the Creoles were given more privileges than the African slaves.  They assimilated more readily than them and they spoke the language of the Portuguese masters exclusively.  Creoles were given domestic labor as opposed to field labor. They were given gifts, granted time-off periods and given early manumission.  Creole women were preferred as concubines as opposed to their African sisters. [130]   For this reason considerable resentment existed between the Creole and the Africans of Bahia. Many of the free Creole owned their own plantations and were reportedly "more cruel in their treatment of Africansthan the whites". [131]    And the Creoles were thoroughly opposed to the African slave revolts because it would put them at a disadvantage with regard to social status if the revolutions had obtained their aims. For this reason the Bahian whites encouraged rivalry between Africans and Creoles in order to divide and rule the colored population.

The Great Islamic Revolt of 1835 or the 'Revolt of the Males'

 We mentioned earlier that Islam as a religion was utilized as a mobilizing factor for the diverse ethnic groups of the Western and Central Sudan.  We also discussed at length some elements of the diffusion of Islamic civilization in these regions of Africa. Proof was given of the transmigration of, some if not all of, these elements into the society of Bahia.  Islam played a major role in the slave revolts of 1807 to 1816, where Hausa Muslims dominated these revolutions and directed its movement.  This, however, did not mean that other ethnic groups were excluded.  On the contrary, Malinkes were apart of the leadership of the revolt of 1807 and Yoruba Ewe converts participated in the revolts of 1809.  However, the revolts of 1814 and 1816, seem to have been exclusively Hausa. [158]

            After the revolt of 1816, which was followed by a thorough repression of Muslim slaves in their religion, dress and customs, there seem to have been a withdrawal underground of the Muslim community and a change of tactics.  Because from the revolts of 1822 until 1830, the slave revolts were dominated by Yoruba animist.  There is however reports that a Yoruba Muslim slave named Cornelio took part in one of the revolts in 1826 and a free Nupe Muslim, Antonio Bomcaminho faced trial for his role in the revolt of 1828 and in supplying weapons to the Creole military conspiracy that same year. [159]   It is clear that the Muslim made a cautious tactical withdrawal as a result of three decades of failure to realize their goals.  This withdrawal took the form of a spiritual hijra where the Muslims could regroup for a few years until destiny could afford them to make a final attempt at overthrowing the repressive Bahian society.  This tactic was not new to the Muslims.  For this was their methodology among the Yoruba, Ashanti and Dahomey animists until they were afforded the opportunity to establish the jihad.  This tactic finds its precedents in Islamic jurisprudence, especially in the writings of the reformer who influenced the ideas of Muslims in the whole of the Sudan, Shehu Uthman Dan Fuduye’.  In his famous book on hijra, jihad, and Islamic governance - he says;

"...emigration from the lands of the disbelievers is obligatory upon every Muslim...and nobody is excused for neglecting it except the oppressed.  Allah says; 'Except the oppressed from among men, women and children who have not the means', i.e. who have neither power nor funds to emigrate, 'Nor can they find a way to escape,' i.e. a way towards a land into which they can emigrate, as al-Suyuti said in his Takmila." [160]

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Glossary

`isha, 67: Arabic, evening prayer; one of the five obligatory prayers of Islam.

abada, 63: Yoruba, termed used in Bahia for the long white Muslim dress.

al-faqih, 14: Arabic, Islamic jurist or lawyer.

al-lawh, 62: Arabic, a wooden board 10 inches by 24 inches, used to write Qur'anic lessons and the to memorize the

fundamental teachings of Islam.

alfa, 14: Fulfulbe', term meaning great scholar, it is derived from the Arabic al-faqih.

alfalu, 14: Fulfulbe', verb meaning to devine or foretell.

alim, 20:  Arabic, scholar or one knowledgable of the Islamic shari`a.

allo, 62:  Hausa, a corrupted form of the Arabic al-lawh; see above.

almamy, 55: Yoruba corruption of the Arabic imam, the leader of the Muslim community.

alufa, 14:  Yoruba, a corruption of the Fulfulbe alfa, Muslim cleric.

aqiqah, 35: Arabic, naming celebration done seven days after the birth of a baby.

as-Saff, 84:  The Ranks, name given to the sixty-first chapter of the Qur'an.

asr, 67:  Arabic,  afternoon prayer; one of the five obligatory prayers in Islam.

baraka, 55:  Arabic, a spiritual force which flows from blessed  individuals or blessed objects.

Batalhao dos Libertos, 44:  Portuguese, 'the Liberty Battalion', name given to the slaves who fought on the side of the

Brazilians during the War of Independence in 1822.

bozales, 7:  Portuguese, a name given to African slaves shipped directly from Africa to Brazil.

candomble, 33:  Portuguese, Afro-Brazilian religion of the Ewe-Yoruba tradition.

cantos de pretos, 29:  Portuguese, the street corners where African slaves met to be hired by potential employees,

around which emerged small African markets.

casebres, 37:  Portuguese, the name given to the secret meeting places, both urban and rural where Muslim slaves met

to do their worship and to plan their revolts.

Dajjal, 21:  Arabic, the name given to the Anti-Christ or any person who is a charlatan in religion.

de ganho, 29:  Portuguese, a name given to slaves who lived seperately from their masters and who hired themselves

out everyday and paid their masters a percentage of ehat they earned.

dhuhr, 67:  Arabic, the noon prayer; one of the five obligatory prayers in Islam.

eid, 55:  Arabic, One of two major celebrations which mark the end of fasting and pilgrimage in Islam.

engenhos, 28:  Portuguese, sugar plantation.

escravo, 29:  Portuguese, a name given to slaves who lived and worked with the slave master.

fajr, 37:  Arabic, dawn prayer; one of the five obligatory prayers in Islam.

Hajj, 55:  Pilgrimage to Mecca, an obligation to be performed a every Muslim at least once in a life-time.

hijab, 86:  Arabic, protection, covering; amulet or talisman.

hijra, 5:  Arabic, to emigrate or flee from disbelief or oppression.

ibaada, 63:  Arabic, any act of worship.

Illius qui, 6:  Latin, an edict passed by the Catholic church in 1442 guaranteeing  spiritual salvation to all those who

would assist in the raiding for slaves.

Imale, 14:  Yoruba, the name given to those who follow the Muslim faith.

imam, 35:  Arabic, leader of a Muslim community.

jalabiyas, 63:  Arabic, distinctive long garments worn by Muslim men.

Jama`at, 16:  Arabic, a community united around an Islamic ideology.

jihad, 5:  Arabic, to struggle against temporeal or spiritual enemies.

Juntes de Liberadade, 31:  Portuguese, an organization established by slaves and freedmen to manumit slaves.

karamat, 20:  Arabic, miracles.

ladinos, 7: Portuguese, acculturated slave.

lailat'l-mi`raj, 55:  Arabic, the night of the heavenly ascension of Muhammad from  Mecca to Jerusalem to the seven

heavens, where he recieved the obligations of  prayer.

lailat'l-qadr, 55:  Arabic, the night in which the Qur'an was revealed to Muhammad.

madeira, 46:  Portuguese, religious objects used in the candomble rites.

madrasas, 52:  Arabic, schools or colleges where the fundamentals of Islam are taught.

maghrib, 67:  Arabic, sunset prayer; one of the five obligatory prayers in Islam.

Mahdi, 21:  Arabic, the Awaited Reformer who renew the religion of Muhammad and act as forerunner to Jesus.

malams, 20:  Hausa, Muslim cleric or teacher.

marabout, 22:  Wolof corruption of the Arabic muraabit, a learned individual who has mastered the outward and

inward aspect of Islam and protects the religion from harm.

pardos, 65:  Portuguese,  mulatto a person of mixed race.

patacas, 87:  Portuguese, Brazilian currency equivalent to 320 reis.

quilombo, 41:  Portuguese, a run-away slave community established in the bush.

Ramadan, 55:  Arabic, the month of fasting in Islam.

reis, 62:  Brazilian currency during the 19th century, equivalent to 39.2 pences.

sadaqa, 62:  Arabic, voluntary alms or charity.

salaat, 49:  Arabic, the name for prayer in Islam.

salat'l-istikhara, 68:  Arabic, the prayer to seek aid and assistance.

salat'l-istisqa, 68:  Arabic, the prayer for rain.

salat'l-khawf, 68:  Arabic, the prayer of fear.

salat'l-khusuf, 68:  Arabic, the prayer for the eclipse of the sun or moon.

sibha, 53:  Arabic, stringed beads usually of wood which Muslims use to remember Allah.

sihara, 88:  Arabic,  magician.

Sunna, 23:  Arabic, the words, deeds, actions, behavior and approval of Muhammad.

taqiyya, 51:  Arabic, dissimilation.

taqwa, 19:  Arabic, mindful of Allah.

tesseba, 63:  Yoruba corruption of the Arabic sibha.

tira, 86:  Yoruba, amulets and talismans.

ulama, :  Arabic, plural for alim, scholar or one learned in Islamic jurisprudence.

wala, 62:  Yoruba, corruption of the Arabic al-lawh, writing board.

wali, 20:  Arabic, one befriended by Allah.

wazir, 36:  Arabic, the second in charge after the amir or ruler.

zakat, 54:  Arabic, obligatory alms on the wealth of the Muslim which they are obligated to pay.